The Story of Hittite Civilization
From Anatolian Kingdom to Bronze Age Superpower
Introduction
The Hittite Empire
The Hittites were an ancient Anatolian people who established an empire centered at Hattusa in north-central Anatolia around 1600 BCE. This empire reached its height during the mid-14th century BCE under Suppiluliuma I, when it encompassed an area that included most of Asia Minor as well as parts of the northern Levant and Upper Mesopotamia.
The Hittites were pioneers of the Iron Age, developing advanced metalworking techniques. They created one of the great empires of the ancient Middle East and were one of the first civilizations to use chariots extensively in warfare. Their diplomatic correspondence with Egypt, particularly the famous peace treaty with Ramses II, provides valuable insights into Bronze Age international relations.
Old Kingdom
The Old Kingdom period (c. 1600-1400 BCE) saw the foundation of the Hittite state under kings like Hattusili I and Mursili I, who expanded Hittite territory through military campaigns. During this time, the Hittites developed their distinctive legal code and began establishing their capital at Hattusa.
Middle Kingdom
The Middle Kingdom period (c. 1400-1344 BCE) was marked by internal struggles and external threats that weakened Hittite power. However, this period also saw the development of Hittite administration and the refinement of their legal system. The Hittites maintained their position as a regional power despite challenges from neighboring states.
Modern Rediscovery
The Hittites were largely forgotten until archaeological excavations in the 19th and 20th centuries revealed their civilization. The decipherment of cuneiform tablets at Hattusa provided extensive information about their history, laws, and diplomatic relations. Today, the Hittites are recognized as one of the great Bronze Age civilizations.
Interactive Hittite Civilization Timeline
Foundation of the Hittite Kingdom
Labarna I establishes the Hittite Old Kingdom, consolidating power in central Anatolia and making Hattusa the capital.
Read moreAround 1650 BCE, Labarna I (sometimes identified with Hattusili I) founded the Hittite Old Kingdom, uniting various Hatti city-states under his rule. He established Hattusa as the capital, which would remain the center of Hittite power for centuries.
Key developments during this period:
- Establishment of a centralized monarchy
- Development of early Hittite laws
- First military campaigns to expand Hittite territory
- Construction of fortifications at Hattusa
The early Hittite kings adopted many cultural elements from the indigenous Hattian people they conquered, including religious practices and aspects of administration. This period laid the foundation for what would become one of the great Bronze Age empires.
Further Reading
- Bryce, Trevor. The Kingdom of the Hittites (2005)
- Macqueen, J.G. The Hittites and Their Contemporaries in Asia Minor (1986)
Mursili I Sacks Babylon
Hittite king Mursili I leads a daring raid that results in the sack of Babylon, ending the Amorite dynasty.
Read moreIn one of the most audacious military campaigns of the ancient world, Hittite king Mursili I marched his army over 800 miles from Hattusa to Babylon, sacking the city and bringing an end to the First Babylonian Dynasty.
Key aspects of this event:
- Demonstrated the mobility and effectiveness of Hittite military forces
- Marked the furthest extent of Hittite expansion during the Old Kingdom
- Indirectly led to the rise of the Kassite dynasty in Babylon
- Weakened Hittite control at home due to the king’s prolonged absence
Despite its military success, the campaign ultimately weakened the Hittite kingdom as Mursili was assassinated shortly after his return, leading to a period of instability.
Further Reading
- Beckman, Gary. Hittite Diplomatic Texts (1999)
- Van De Mieroop, Marc. A History of the Ancient Near East (2015)
Middle Kingdom Begins
The Hittite Middle Kingdom period begins, marked by internal struggles and external threats to Hittite power.
Read moreThe Middle Kingdom (c. 1400-1344 BCE) was a period of relative weakness for the Hittites, characterized by:
- Frequent assassinations and succession struggles
- Loss of territories to neighboring powers
- Pressure from the Kaska people in the north
- Competition with Mitanni for control of Syria
Despite these challenges, the Hittite state survived and even expanded its diplomatic contacts. Kings like Tudhaliya I/II managed to maintain Hittite influence in northern Syria and began the process of administrative reforms that would bear fruit in the New Kingdom period.
This period also saw the development of more sophisticated treaty systems with vassal states and the refinement of Hittite legal codes.
Further Reading
- Bryce, Trevor. Life and Society in the Hittite World (2002)
- Collins, Billie Jean. The Hittites and Their World (2007)
Suppiluliuma I Ascends
Suppiluliuma I becomes king, beginning the Hittite New Kingdom and imperial expansion.
Read moreSuppiluliuma I (r. c. 1344-1322 BCE) was one of the most capable Hittite kings, transforming the kingdom into a true empire. His reign marked the beginning of the Hittite New Kingdom (or Empire period).
Key achievements:
- Defeated the Mitanni kingdom, bringing northern Syria under Hittite control
- Established a network of vassal states through treaties
- Reorganized the Hittite military and administration
- Expanded Hittite influence through diplomacy and marriage alliances
Suppiluliuma’s reign also saw significant developments in Hittite culture, including advances in ironworking techniques and the expansion of the royal archives at Hattusa. His successors would maintain and expand upon his achievements, making the Hittites one of the great powers of the Late Bronze Age.
Further Reading
- Klengel, Horst. Geschichte des hethitischen Reiches (1999)
- Singer, Itamar. Hittite Prayers (2002)
Battle of Kadesh
Hittite king Muwatalli II fights Egyptian pharaoh Ramses II to a standstill at Kadesh.
Read moreThe Battle of Kadesh (1274 BCE) was one of the largest chariot battles in history, fought between the Hittites under Muwatalli II and the Egyptians under Ramses II near the city of Kadesh in Syria.
Key aspects of the battle:
- Involved 5,000-6,000 chariots total
- Hittites used superior tactics to nearly defeat the Egyptians
- Both sides claimed victory in their records
- Led to the first recorded peace treaty in history 16 years later
The battle demonstrated the military prowess of both empires and ultimately led to a diplomatic resolution that stabilized the region. The subsequent peace treaty between Hattusili III and Ramses II (1258 BCE) is the earliest known international peace agreement, copies of which were preserved in both Hattusa and Egyptian temples.
Further Reading
- Bryce, Trevor. Letters of the Great Kings of the Ancient Near East (2003)
- Healy, Mark. Qadesh 1300 BC (1993)
Bronze Age Collapse
The Hittite Empire falls during the wider Bronze Age collapse, with Hattusa abandoned.
Read moreAround 1200 BCE, the Hittite Empire collapsed during the wider Bronze Age collapse that affected civilizations across the Eastern Mediterranean. The causes were likely multiple and interconnected:
- Invasion by the so-called “Sea Peoples”
- Internal rebellions and loss of control over vassal states
- Drought and famine leading to social unrest
- Disruption of trade networks
- Possible earthquakes and other natural disasters
The capital Hattusa was burned and abandoned around 1180 BCE. However, smaller Neo-Hittite city-states survived in southern Anatolia and northern Syria for several more centuries, preserving elements of Hittite culture and art.
The collapse of the Hittite Empire marked the end of an era in Anatolia and created a power vacuum that would eventually be filled by the Phrygians and other emerging peoples.
Further Reading
- Cline, Eric H. 1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed (2014)
- Drews, Robert. The End of the Bronze Age (1993)
Rediscovery of Hattusa
French archaeologist Charles Texier rediscovers the ruins of Hattusa, the Hittite capital.
Read moreIn 1834, French explorer and archaeologist Charles Texier stumbled upon the ruins of Hattusa (modern Boğazkale, Turkey) while searching for Roman ruins. His discovery would eventually lead to the identification of the Hittite civilization, which had been largely forgotten by history.
Key developments in Hittite archaeology:
- Systematic excavations began in 1906 under Hugo Winckler
- Discovery of the royal archives with thousands of cuneiform tablets
- Decipherment of Hittite language in the early 20th century
- Ongoing excavations that continue to reveal new insights
The rediscovery of Hattusa and the decipherment of Hittite texts revolutionized understanding of ancient Near Eastern history, revealing a major Bronze Age power that had interacted with Egypt, Babylon, and other great civilizations.
Further Reading
- Ceram, C.W. The Secret of the Hittites (1956)
- Gurney, O.R. The Hittites (1990)
Excavation of Hittite Archives
German archaeologist Hugo Winckler begins excavations at Hattusa, uncovering the royal archives.
Read moreIn 1906, German archaeologist Hugo Winckler began systematic excavations at Hattusa that would uncover the royal archives containing over 10,000 cuneiform tablets. These texts provided an unprecedented window into Hittite civilization:
- Royal annals and historical texts
- Legal codes and treaties (including the Kadesh peace treaty)
- Religious and mythological texts
- Administrative documents
- Correspondence with foreign rulers
The decipherment of these texts, written in Akkadian, Hittite, and other languages, revealed the Hittites as a major Bronze Age power with sophisticated legal and diplomatic systems. The archives also contained the earliest known Indo-European texts, making them invaluable for linguistic studies.
Ongoing excavations at Hattusa and other Hittite sites continue to yield new discoveries about this influential ancient civilization.
Further Reading
- Hoffner, Harry A. Hittite Myths (1998)
- Neve, Peter. Hattusa: Stadt der Götter und Tempel (1996)
Hittite Civilization Quiz
Test Your Knowledge of Hittite History
Frequently Asked Questions
Common Questions About Hittite Civilization
The collapse of the Hittite Empire around 1200 BCE was likely caused by a combination of factors:
- External invasions: Attacks by the mysterious “Sea Peoples” and other groups
- Internal instability: Famine, rebellions, and succession disputes
- Economic factors: Disruption of trade networks during the wider Bronze Age collapse
- Environmental changes: Possible climate shifts leading to drought and food shortages
While the central Hittite state collapsed, smaller Neo-Hittite city-states continued in southern Anatolia and northern Syria for several more centuries, preserving elements of Hittite culture.
The Hittites spoke an Indo-European language known as Hittite (or Nesite), which is the earliest attested Indo-European language. Key facts about Hittite language:
- Written in cuneiform script adapted from Mesopotamia
- Used alongside other languages like Luwian (written in hieroglyphs) and Hattic
- Contains loanwords from non-Indo-European languages of Anatolia
- Provides important evidence for reconstructing Proto-Indo-European
The decipherment of Hittite in the early 20th century was a major breakthrough in linguistics and ancient Near Eastern studies.
The Hittites made several significant contributions to ancient civilization:
- Technology: Pioneered ironworking techniques that spread throughout the ancient world
- Law: Developed a sophisticated legal code with progressive elements
- Diplomacy: Created an extensive treaty system with vassal states
- Military: Mastered chariot warfare and siege techniques
- Architecture: Built impressive fortifications and temples
- Literature: Produced historical annals and mythological texts
Their peace treaty with Egypt after the Battle of Kadesh is the earliest known international peace agreement in history.
While there is no direct, unbroken cultural continuity, genetic and linguistic evidence suggests some modern populations in Anatolia may have Hittite ancestry:
- Some modern Anatolian groups may carry genetic markers from ancient Hittites
- Elements of Hittite culture survived in Neo-Hittite and later Anatolian civilizations
- Certain place names and cultural practices in central Turkey may have Hittite origins
- The Hittite language belongs to the Anatolian branch of Indo-European, now extinct
However, the Hittites as a distinct ethnic and political entity disappeared with the Bronze Age collapse, though their legacy influenced subsequent cultures in the region.
Conclusion
The Hittite Legacy
The Hittites were one of the great civilizations of the ancient Near East, establishing an empire that rivaled Egypt and Babylon during the Bronze Age. From their capital at Hattusa in central Anatolia, they developed advanced technologies, sophisticated legal systems, and effective diplomatic practices that influenced the entire region.
Though their empire collapsed during the Bronze Age crisis around 1200 BCE, the Hittites left an enduring legacy. Their innovations in ironworking helped usher in the Iron Age, their treaty with Egypt set precedents for international diplomacy, and their extensive archives provide invaluable insights into ancient Near Eastern history and the development of Indo-European languages.
Hittite Civilization Key Takeaways
Old Kingdom Foundations
The Old Kingdom period saw the establishment of Hittite state power under kings like Hattusili I and Mursili I, who expanded Hittite territory and developed early legal codes.
Middle Kingdom Challenges
The Middle Kingdom was a period of relative weakness marked by internal struggles, but also saw the refinement of Hittite administration and legal systems.
New Kingdom Empire
The New Kingdom under Suppiluliuma I and his successors saw the Hittites reach their imperial height, competing with Egypt for control of the Near East.
Bronze Age Collapse
The Hittite Empire fell during the wider Bronze Age collapse, though Neo-Hittite states preserved elements of their culture for centuries.
Modern Rediscovery
Archaeological discoveries and the decipherment of Hittite texts in the 20th century revealed the importance of this once-forgotten civilization.
The study of Hittite civilization provides crucial insights into the interconnected world of the ancient Near East and the transition from the Bronze to Iron Ages. As excavations and research continue, our understanding of this influential but long-overlooked culture continues to grow, revealing new dimensions of ancient history.
Recommended Reading About Hittite Civilization
- Bryce, Trevor. The Kingdom of the Hittites (2nd edition, 2005)
- Collins, Billie Jean. The Hittites and Their World (2007)
- Gurney, O.R. The Hittites (revised edition, 1990)
- Macqueen, J.G. The Hittites and Their Contemporaries in Asia Minor (1986)
- Beckman, Gary. Hittite Diplomatic Texts (2nd edition, 1999)
