The Story of Aztec Civilization
From Tenochtitlan to Spanish Conquest
Introduction
The Aztec Empire
The Aztec civilization flourished in central Mexico from 1345 to 1521 CE, establishing one of the most powerful empires in Mesoamerica. Centered in their magnificent capital Tenochtitlan (modern-day Mexico City), the Aztecs built a sophisticated society with complex social, political, and religious systems.
The Aztecs were renowned for their warrior culture, monumental architecture, advanced agricultural techniques (including chinampas or “floating gardens”), and a rich artistic tradition. Their empire was maintained through military conquest and a sophisticated tribute system that brought wealth from across Mesoamerica to Tenochtitlan.
Early Migrations
The Aztecs (who called themselves Mexica) were originally nomadic peoples from northern Mexico who migrated south. According to legend, they were guided by their patron god Huitzilopochtli to settle where they saw an eagle perched on a cactus eating a snake—the site that became Tenochtitlan.
Flower Wars
The Aztecs engaged in ritual battles called “Flower Wars” (xochiyaoyotl) with neighboring states. These ceremonial conflicts served to train warriors, capture prisoners for sacrifice, and demonstrate military might without the complete destruction of enemy cities.
Modern Rediscovery
Archaeological discoveries in Mexico City have revealed the splendor of Tenochtitlan beneath the modern metropolis. The Templo Mayor was rediscovered in 1978, sparking new interest in Aztec civilization and its sophisticated urban planning, art, and culture.
Interactive Aztec Civilization Timeline
Origins in Aztlan
The Mexica people begin their migration from the mythical homeland of Aztlan, guided by their patron god Huitzilopochtli.
Read moreAccording to Aztec legend, the Mexica people originated in a place called Aztlan (meaning “Place of Whiteness” or “Place of Herons”). The exact location of Aztlan remains unknown, though it was likely somewhere in northwestern Mexico or the southwestern United States.
The migration was said to have been prompted by their patron god Huitzilopochtli, who commanded them to find a new home where they would see an eagle perched on a cactus eating a snake. This journey would take nearly 200 years before they reached the Valley of Mexico.
During their migration, the Mexica were considered barbarians by the more established city-states of central Mexico. They served as mercenaries for various rulers, developing their formidable military skills that would later make them the dominant power in the region.
Further Reading
- Smith, Michael E. The Aztecs (2003)
- Townsend, Richard F. The Aztecs (2009)
Foundation of Tenochtitlan
The Mexica found their capital city Tenochtitlan on an island in Lake Texcoco, fulfilling the prophecy of Huitzilopochtli.
Read moreAfter years of wandering and serving as mercenaries for more powerful city-states, the Mexica finally saw the prophesied sign—an eagle perched on a cactus eating a snake—on a small island in Lake Texcoco. Here they established their capital city, Tenochtitlan, in 1325 CE.
The site was strategically chosen for both defensive purposes and access to trade routes. Despite the challenges of building on a lake, the Mexica developed innovative techniques to expand their city, including:
- Creating chinampas (artificial islands) for agriculture
- Building causeways to connect to the mainland
- Constructing an elaborate system of canals for transportation
- Developing aqueducts to bring fresh water from springs
From this humble beginning, Tenochtitlan would grow to become one of the largest and most impressive cities in the world by the early 16th century.
Further Reading
- Matos Moctezuma, Eduardo. Tenochtitlan (2006)
- Mundy, Barbara E. The Death of Aztec Tenochtitlan, the Life of Mexico City (2015)
Triple Alliance Formed
The Mexica form the Triple Alliance with Texcoco and Tlacopan, marking the beginning of the Aztec Empire.
Read moreIn 1428, the Mexica of Tenochtitlan, under the leadership of Itzcoatl and his adviser Tlacaelel, formed a military alliance with the Acolhua city-state of Texcoco and the Tepanec city-state of Tlacopan. This Triple Alliance would become the foundation of the Aztec Empire.
The alliance was formed after the defeat of Azcapotzalco, the dominant Tepanec city. The three cities agreed to share the spoils of future conquests, though Tenochtitlan would gradually become the dominant partner.
Key developments during this period:
- Reorganization of Aztec society with a stronger warrior class
- Creation of the Flower Wars to train warriors and capture sacrifices
- Expansion of the empire through military conquest
- Development of an extensive tribute system
The Triple Alliance period marked the transformation of the Mexica from a relatively minor city-state to the center of a vast empire.
Further Reading
- Hassig, Ross. Aztec Warfare: Imperial Expansion and Political Control (1988)
- León-Portilla, Miguel. The Aztec Image of Self and Society (1992)
Reign of Moctezuma I
Moctezuma I becomes tlatoani (emperor) and expands the empire significantly through military conquest.
Read moreMoctezuma I (also called Moctezuma Ilhuicamina) ruled from 1440 to 1469 and was one of the most important Aztec emperors. During his reign, the Aztec Empire expanded significantly through military conquest, and Tenochtitlan became the dominant city in the Triple Alliance.
Key achievements of his reign include:
- Conquest of territories reaching to the Gulf Coast
- Establishment of a more formalized tribute system
- Construction of major infrastructure projects including aqueducts and temples
- Institutionalization of human sacrifice on a large scale
- Creation of the “Flowery Wars” to ensure a steady supply of sacrificial victims
Moctezuma I also faced challenges during his reign, including a devastating famine in 1450-1454 that was interpreted as a sign of the gods’ displeasure, leading to increased religious ceremonies and sacrifices.
Further Reading
- Durán, Diego. The History of the Indies of New Spain (1581, translated 1994)
- Graulich, Michel. Montezuma: ou l’apogée et la chute de l’empire aztèque (1994)
Reconsecration of Templo Mayor
The Great Temple of Tenochtitlan is reconsecrated with an estimated 20,000 sacrificial victims.
Read moreIn 1487, under the reign of Ahuitzotl (1486-1502), the Aztecs completed a major expansion of the Templo Mayor (Great Temple) in Tenochtitlan. The reconsecration ceremony was one of the most spectacular and bloody events in Aztec history.
According to Aztec and Spanish accounts:
- An estimated 20,000 prisoners were sacrificed over four days
- Victims were led up the temple stairs to be sacrificed by priests
- Their hearts were removed and offered to the gods
- The bodies were then thrown down the temple steps
This massive sacrifice demonstrated the power of the Aztec state and its ability to command tribute and prisoners from across its empire. It also reflected the Aztec belief that human sacrifice was necessary to nourish the gods and maintain cosmic order.
The Templo Mayor was the sacred center of the Aztec universe, with twin shrines dedicated to Huitzilopochtli (god of war) and Tlaloc (god of rain).
Further Reading
- Carrasco, David. City of Sacrifice: The Aztec Empire and the Role of Violence in Civilization (1999)
- Matos Moctezuma, Eduardo. The Great Temple of the Aztecs (1988)
Moctezuma II Becomes Emperor
Moctezuma Xocoyotzin (Moctezuma II) ascends to the throne, ruling during the Spanish arrival.
Read moreMoctezuma II (also called Moctezuma Xocoyotzin) became the ninth tlatoani of Tenochtitlan in 1502, ruling until 1520. His reign saw both the height of Aztec power and the beginning of its collapse with the arrival of the Spanish.
Key aspects of his reign:
- Continued expansion of the empire, though with more rebellions
- Centralization of power in the emperor’s hands
- Elaborate court rituals emphasizing the emperor’s semi-divine status
- Growing tensions with subject peoples who resented Aztec tribute demands
- Ominous omens (according to later accounts) predicting disaster
Moctezuma II’s response to the Spanish arrival in 1519 would prove controversial. Initially welcoming Hernán Cortés, possibly believing him to be the returning god Quetzalcoatl, Moctezuma eventually became a hostage in his own palace before dying under mysterious circumstances during the Aztec uprising against the Spanish.
Further Reading
- Thomas, Hugh. Conquest: Montezuma, Cortés, and the Fall of Old Mexico (1993)
- León-Portilla, Miguel. The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico (1962)
Arrival of Hernán Cortés
Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés lands on the Mexican coast and begins his march inland toward Tenochtitlan.
Read moreIn February 1519, Hernán Cortés landed on the coast of Mexico near present-day Veracruz with about 500 soldiers, 16 horses, and some artillery. Over the next two years, this small force would bring down the mighty Aztec Empire through a combination of military skill, alliances with discontented indigenous groups, and disease.
Key events of 1519:
- Cortés founded Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz, establishing a legal basis for his expedition
- He learned of the wealthy Aztec Empire and decided to march inland
- Formed alliances with the Totonacs and later the Tlaxcalans, bitter enemies of the Aztecs
- Marched to Tenochtitlan, where Moctezuma II initially welcomed him
The Spanish were awed by the size and sophistication of Tenochtitlan, which was larger than any city in Spain at the time. Cortés would later write to King Charles V that it was “the most beautiful thing in the world.”
Further Reading
- Díaz del Castillo, Bernal. The True History of the Conquest of New Spain (1568)
- Restall, Matthew. When Montezuma Met Cortés: The True Story of the Meeting That Changed History (2018)
Fall of Tenochtitlan
After a brutal siege, Tenochtitlan falls to the Spanish and their indigenous allies, marking the end of the Aztec Empire.
Read moreOn August 13, 1521, after a 93-day siege, the last Aztec emperor Cuauhtémoc surrendered to Cortés, marking the end of the Aztec Empire. The fall of Tenochtitlan was the result of:
- Superior Spanish weaponry (guns, steel, horses)
- Devastating smallpox epidemic that killed up to half the population
- Alliances with indigenous groups who resented Aztec rule
- Spanish naval superiority on Lake Texcoco
- Systematic destruction of the city’s infrastructure during the siege
The siege was brutal, with the Aztecs suffering from starvation and disease while continuing to resist. When the city fell, the Spanish and their allies massacred many of the remaining inhabitants and systematically destroyed temples and palaces.
Tenochtitlan was razed, and Mexico City was built on its ruins, using many of the same foundations and canals. The conquest marked the beginning of Spanish colonial rule in Mexico that would last for 300 years.
Further Reading
- León-Portilla, Miguel. The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico (1962)
- Mann, Charles C. 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus (2005)
Discovery of the Sun Stone
The massive Aztec Sun Stone (often called the Aztec Calendar) is unearthed in Mexico City’s main square.
Read moreIn December 1790, workers repairing Mexico City’s central plaza discovered the massive Aztec Sun Stone, a 12-foot diameter, 24-ton basalt monument created around 1479. This spectacular artifact, often mistakenly called the “Aztec Calendar,” is one of the most famous surviving Aztec sculptures.
The Sun Stone features:
- A central image of the sun god Tonatiuh
- Representations of the four previous eras or “suns” in Aztec cosmology
- The 20 day signs of the Aztec calendar
- Symbols representing the movement of the sun through the heavens
Originally displayed in the ceremonial center of Tenochtitlan, the stone was likely buried by the Spanish during the early colonial period. After its rediscovery, it was initially mounted on the side of the cathedral before being moved to the National Museum of Anthropology, where it remains a centerpiece of the Aztec hall.
Further Reading
- Umberger, Emily. Aztec Sculptures, Hieroglyphs, and History (2007)
- Taube, Karl A. Aztec and Maya Myths (1993)
Templo Mayor Rediscovered
Electrical workers discover a massive stone disk depicting Coyolxauhqui, leading to excavation of the Templo Mayor.
Read moreIn February 1978, workers digging for an electrical substation in Mexico City uncovered a massive stone carving of the dismembered moon goddess Coyolxauhqui. This discovery led to the excavation of the Templo Mayor (Great Temple), the main ceremonial center of Tenochtitlan that had been buried beneath the colonial city.
The excavations revealed:
- Multiple construction phases of the temple
- Thousands of ritual offerings including jade, shells, and animal remains
- Evidence of human sacrifices
- Artifacts from across Mesoamerica showing the extent of Aztec trade
The site became the Templo Mayor Museum, one of Mexico’s most important archaeological sites. The discoveries revolutionized understanding of Aztec religion, politics, and daily life, providing physical evidence to complement historical accounts.
The Coyolxauhqui stone, depicting the goddess defeated by her brother Huitzilopochtli, was particularly significant as it corroborated Aztec myths recorded after the conquest.
Further Reading
- Matos Moctezuma, Eduardo. Excavations at the Templo Mayor (1988)
- López Luján, Leonardo. The Offerings of the Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan (2005)
Aztec Civilization Quiz
Test Your Knowledge of Aztec History
Frequently Asked Questions
Common Questions About Aztec Civilization
Human sacrifice was a central part of Aztec religion and worldview. The Aztecs believed that:
- The gods had sacrificed themselves to create the sun and the world, and human sacrifice repaid this debt
- Blood nourished the gods and maintained cosmic order
- Without sacrifice, the sun would stop moving and the world would end
- War captives were especially valued as offerings to Huitzilopochtli, the sun and war god
While the scale of Aztec sacrifice was exaggerated by Spanish conquistadors, archaeological evidence confirms it was practiced on a large scale, particularly during major ceremonies like the reconsecration of the Templo Mayor in 1487.
The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire was achieved through a combination of factors:
- Military technology: Spanish had steel weapons, guns, cannons, and horses
- Disease: Smallpox and other European diseases devastated the native population
- Alliances: Cortés allied with indigenous groups who resented Aztec rule
- Aztec vulnerabilities: Many subject peoples were ready to rebel against harsh Aztec rule
- Cultural factors: Initial Aztec hesitation may have stemmed from religious beliefs about the Spanish
While Cortés had only about 500 Spanish soldiers, his thousands of indigenous allies (particularly the Tlaxcalans) were crucial to his victory.
The Aztecs made numerous significant advances, including:
- Urban planning: Tenochtitlan was one of the largest and most sophisticated cities in the world
- Agriculture: Developed chinampas (floating gardens) for intensive farming
- Medicine: Had advanced herbal remedies and surgical techniques
- Education: Had mandatory schooling for all children
- Art: Created beautiful sculptures, featherwork, and gold jewelry
- Calendar: Developed sophisticated solar and ritual calendars
Despite their reputation as warlike, the Aztecs also had a rich poetic tradition and philosophical schools that explored questions of existence and the divine.
While the Aztec Empire ended in 1521, descendants of the Aztecs (who called themselves Mexica) survive today as the Nahua people, primarily in central Mexico. Key facts about modern Nahua:
- Approximately 1.5 million Nahuatl speakers in Mexico today
- Many cultural traditions continue, including agricultural practices and folk medicine
- Some religious practices blend pre-Columbian and Catholic elements
- Nahua communities maintain aspects of traditional dress, music, and dance
- Aztec heritage is a source of pride in Mexican national identity
The Mexican flag features the Aztec symbol of the eagle on a cactus eating a snake, reflecting the continuing importance of Aztec heritage in modern Mexico.
Conclusion
The Aztec Legacy
The Aztec civilization represents one of the most powerful and sophisticated empires of the ancient Americas. In less than 200 years, they transformed from a wandering tribe to rulers of a vast empire centered on the magnificent city of Tenochtitlan.
While the Spanish conquest ended Aztec political dominance, their cultural legacy endures in modern Mexico. From language and cuisine to art and national symbols, Aztec influences remain vibrant today.
Aztec Civilization Key Takeaways
Early Migrations
The Aztecs migrated from Aztlan to the Valley of Mexico, where they founded Tenochtitlan in 1325 after seeing the prophesied eagle on a cactus.
Flower Wars
The Aztecs developed ritual battles to train warriors and capture sacrificial victims, maintaining their military dominance.
Imperial Expansion
Through the Triple Alliance, the Aztecs built a vast empire with Tenochtitlan as its magnificent capital.
Spanish Conquest
Despite their power, the Aztec Empire fell quickly to Cortés and his indigenous allies, aided by disease and internal divisions.
Modern Rediscovery
Archaeological discoveries continue to reveal the sophistication of Aztec civilization and its enduring influence on Mexican culture.
The story of the Aztecs reminds us of the remarkable achievements possible in human societies, as well as the complex interplay of factors that determine the rise and fall of civilizations. As we continue to uncover the secrets of Tenochtitlan beneath modern Mexico City, we gain not only historical knowledge but also perspective on cultural resilience and transformation.
Recommended Reading About Aztec Civilization
- Smith, Michael E. The Aztecs (3rd edition, 2012)
- León-Portilla, Miguel. The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico (1962)
- Carrasco, David. City of Sacrifice: The Aztec Empire and the Role of Violence in Civilization (1999)
- Matos Moctezuma, Eduardo. The Aztecs (1989)
- Hassig, Ross. Aztec Warfare: Imperial Expansion and Political Control (1988)
